Bluestripe snapper

The bluestripe snapper, Lutjanus kasmira, (also known as the bluestripe sea perch) is a common species of marine fish of the snapper family Lutjanidae. The bluestripe snapper is one of the most widespread of the snappers, occupying a range from the Red Sea south to Madagascar and east to India, Asia, Indonesia, Australia and a number of Pacific Islands including Hawaii. The species is not native to Hawaii, having been introduced in the 1950s to be used as a food and sport fish; a plan that failed. Concerns have since been raised on the long term effects of this new species on the Hawaiian native species and the marine ecology in general, as the bluestripe snapper has spread throughout the islands, becoming abundant in numbers.
The species is so named due to its distinctive colouration, which consists of a bright yellow body overlain by narrow horizontal electric blue stripes. The bluestripe snapper is primarily a reef dweller living in shallow coastal areas to reefs up to 265 m deep, consuming a range of fish, cephalopods and crustaceans. Often schooling while juveniles, the adults tend to be solitary and reach a maximum known length of 40 cm.

Taxonomy

The bluestripe snapper is classified in the genus Lutjanus, which is part of the snapper family Lutjanidae. The Lutjanidae is further divided into four subfamilies, with the genus Lutjanus falling into the subfamily Lutjaninae. The Lutjanidae are Perciformes in the suborder Percoidei.[1]
The species was first scientifically described by Swedish naturalist Peter Forsskål in 1775 under the name Sciaena kasmira, with the holotype specimen taken from "Arabia", possibly the Persian Gulf. Forsskål re examined the fish and determined that he had initially misassigned it, and put it in the genus Lutjanus, creating the new combination Lutjanus kasmira, which is still the valid name in use today.[2] After Forsskål, a number of naturalists tried to reclassify the species, with Cuvier applying Diacope octolineata , Lesson Mesoprion etaape and Bleeker applied Mesoprion pomacanthus to the species. These are all considered junior synonyms and therefore invalid under the ICZN naming rules.[3]
The common names of Lutjanus kasmira are descriptive in nature, with adjectives such as bluestripe, blue-banded and blouband commonly used in front of generic names such as 'snapper' and 'sea perch'. There are a large number of local names used for the species, with the wide range of the fish the cause of so many names.[3]

Description

The body of the bluestripe snapper is moderately deep in profile, with the dorsal profile of the head steeply sloped, having a well developed preopercular notch and knob. Identifying morphological features include the number of gill rakers on lower limb of the first arch, which number 13 or 14, with the total rakers on the first arch numbering 20 to 22. The dorsal fin consists of 10 spines anterior to 14 or 15 soft rays, while the anal fin has 3 spines and 7 or 8 soft rays. The pectoral fins have 15 or 16 rays, with the caudal fin being slightly emarginate. The row of scales on the back rise obliquely above the lateral line, which contains 48 to 51 scales.[2] The species reaches a maximum length of 40 cm.[3]
The color is probably the most diagnostic feature of the fish, especially when alive or fresh from the water. The back and sides of the fish are bright yellow, with the lower sides and underside of head fading to white. Four bright blue stripes run longitudinally on the side of the fish, with several faint greyish stripes on lowermost part of sides. All fins are yellow in colour.[2]

Range and habitat

The bluestripe snapper is one of the most widespread species of the Lutjanidae, ranging from the coast of Egypt bordering the Red Sea, south to Madagascar and east to India, China, South East Asia, Australia and a number of Pacific Islands.[4] The species has also been introduced to the waters of Hawaii, causing concerns for aspects of the areas ecology.
Like many snappers, it inhabits coral reefs, occurring in both shallow lagoons and on outer reef slopes to depths of at least 60 m, but has been recorded at depths of 180 and 265 m at the Marquesas Islands and the Red Sea respectively. In Hawaii they have been reported to spend some time over seagrass and sandy substrates also.[5] They are frequently found in large aggregations around coral formations, caves or wrecks during daylight hours.[2]

Dilkusha Kothi

Dilkusha Kothi is the remains of an eighteenth-century house built in the English baroque style in the quiet Dilkusha area of Lucknow in India.[1] Today there are only a few towers and external walls as a monument, though the extensive gardens remain. The house was shelled during its involvement in the Lucknow siege in 1857 together with the Residency and the nearby school of La Martiniere.

History

The house was constructed around 1800 by the British resident Major Gore Ouseley,[2] a friend of the ruler of Oudh, Nawab Saadat Ali Khan. It was initially intended as a hunting lodge for the nawabs of Oudh although it was later used as a summer resort too. Changes were made to its design by Nawab, King Nasir-ud-Din Haider (1827-1837). The building had patterned walls and unusually no inner courtyard as was traditional in Indian architecture. The building therefore had a smaller footprint and did not extend over a large area but was taller than traditional local architecture. Like its neighbour, La Constantia, it is located on the banks of Lucknow's main river, the Gomti.[1] The design bears a startling resemblance to the style of Seaton Delaval Hall in Northumberland, England. Seaton Delaval Hall was built in 1721 and was designed by Sir John Vanbrugh, who also designed Blenheim Palace. Dilkusha Kothi is depicted in a rare early albumen print by the photographer Samuel Bourne dating from 1864-1865.[3]

Balloon ascent

It is said that in 1830, Dilkushi Kothi was the location for an early balloon ascent by "an Englishman". This story is less notable given that the Frenchman Claude Martin who had been a neighbour when his palace of Constantia, later La Martiniere Boys College, was started in the 1790s. He too had arranged a balloon ascent in Lucknow and he died before the demonstration here. The ascent in 1830 was watched by King Nasir-ud-Din Haider and large number of his courtiers.[4]

1857

The military positions in 1857 are shown on the map illustrated.[5] The Dilkusha gardens are at the lower right. In 1857 the house was held by Indian insurgents and was forcibly recaptured by British forces under the instructions of British commander-in-chief, Sir Colin Campbell. It has been reported that British General Sir Henry Havelock breathed his last here on November 24, 1857, but other sources report a less glamorous death from dysentery, although this was almost inevitably caused by the siege.[1] The map illustrated shows how the grounds were at the centre of the British military activity in September and November of 1857. North west along the river Gomti is La Martiniere and further along the river is the Residency of Sir Henry Lawrence. These three buildings played a substantial role in the uprising in Lucknow. This building received heavy shelling.[1] although the photograph above dated 1858 shows little evidence of major damage. A photo taken in 1898[6] shows the building in ruins so it would appear that the major damage was not in the siege.
Following the uprising a large number of medals were awarded, but the most valuable are those that bear the message "siege of Lucknow".[7]

Today

Today the gardens are visited by few people. It has been surmised that the reason may be the lack of publicity.[1] There are a greater number of visitors during the winter when foreign tourists make up the normal visitors of families picnicing,[8] school children and young couples.[1] The Archaeological Society of India has done work to prevent further decay, carrying out gardening and small repairs. The site is considered to be deserving of further publicity by the ASI, subject to funding.[1][8] It is claimed that "Dilkusha Kothi is probably one of the most beautiful monuments in the historic city of Lucknow."[1]

Whirlpool Galaxy

The Whirlpool Galaxy (also known as Messier 51a, M51a, or NGC 5194) is an interacting[4] grand-design[5] spiral galaxy located at a distance of approximately 23 million light-years in the constellation Canes Venatici. It is one of the most famous spiral galaxies in the sky. The galaxy and its companion (NGC 5195) are easily observed by amateur astronomers, and the two galaxies may even be seen with binoculars.[6] The Whirlpool Galaxy is also a popular target for professional astronomers, who study it to further understand galaxy structure (particularly structure associated with the spiral arms) and galaxy interactions.

Discovery

The Whirlpool Galaxy was discovered by Charles Messier on October 13, 1773. Its companion galaxy, NGC 5195, was discovered in 1781 by Pierre Méchain. It was however not until 1845 that the Whirlpool became the first galaxy to be recognized as a spiral. This was achieved by Lord Rosse employing a 72-inch reflecting telescope which he constructed at Birr Castle, Ireland. In 2005 a supernova (SN 2005cs) was observed in the Whirlpool Galaxy, peaking at apparent magnitude 14.[7][8] Sometimes M51 is used to refer to the pair of galaxies, in which case the individual galaxies may be referred to as M51A (NGC 5194) and M51B (NGC 5195).

Properties

With the recent SN 2005cs derived estimate of 23 Mly distance, and an angular diameter of roughly 11′.2, we can infer that M51's bright circular disk has a radius of about ~38,000 light-years. Its mass is estimated to be 160 billion solar masses. Compared to 100 kly diameter of the Milky Way, M51 has about half its size and mass.

"X" across the nucleus of M51 indicating one hundred dust rings around the black hole at the center of the galaxy
A black hole surrounded by a ring of dust exists at the heart of the spiral. The dust ring stands almost perpendicular to the relatively flat spiral galaxy. A secondary ring crosses the primary ring on a different axis, a phenomenon that is contrary to expectations. A pair of ionization cones extend from the axis of the main dust ring.[9]

Visual appearance

Located within the constellation Canes Venatici, M51 is easy to find by following the easternmost star of the Big Dipper, Eta Ursae Majoris, and going 3.5° southeast. Its declination is +47°, so it is circumpolar for observers located above 43°N latitude and reaches high altitudes throughout the northern hemisphere making it an accessible object, especially from the very early hours in winter through the end of spring season, after which summer solstice somewhat hinders observations.
M51 is visible through binoculars on a dark night, but with modern amateur telescopes this galaxy is truly a sight to behold. It is very forgiving on the instrument, when seen even through a humble 10 cm telescope the basic outlines of M51 and its companion are visible. Under dark skies and seen with a moderate eyepiece through a 15 cm telescope one can detect M51's intrinsic spiral structure. With larger (>30 cm) instruments M51 is simply breathtaking. The various spiral bands are very obvious and several HII regions appear to be visible, and M51 can be seen to be attached to M51B.
As is usual for galaxies, the true extent of its size can only be gathered from inspecting deep photographs, and very long exposures reveal a pretty large nebula extending beyond the visible circular appearance.
In January 2005 the Hubble Heritage Team constructed a 11477x7965 pixel composite image (shown in the info box above) of M51 using Hubble's ACS instrument, revealing this splendid galaxy and its companion in unprecedented detail.[10]

Star formation

Induced spiral structure in the larger galaxy isn't the only effect of the interaction. Significant compression of hydrogen gas occurs that leads to the development of starbirth regions. In pictures of M51 these show up as the bright blue 'knots' throughout the spiral arms.
Generally speaking, hydrogen gas is the most common component of the interstellar medium (the vast space between stars & planetary systems in galaxies). It exists primarily in its atomic and molecular form, and forms huge clouds throughout the entire galaxy. When large sources of gravitational pull pass nearby, such as other galaxies, gravitational interactions produce compression (density) waves that sweep through these hydrogen clouds. This causes some regions of the previously diffuse gas to compress into tight pockets of opaque and dense gas, these are dust lanes one so often sees in the spiral arms. In regions where the concentration and density of gas reaches a critical value, further collapse under its own gravitational pull occurs, and stars are born at the center of the collapse, where the gas is compressed so strongly that fusion initiates.
When this happens, these new-born stars gobble up huge amounts of gas causing them to expand, shine even hotter, and finally sweep away the surrounding layers of dust and gas by increasing efflux of the solar wind. The gigantic proportions of the clouds out of which they are born means stars seldom, if ever, are created in isolation. Thus regions of several hot young stars emit sufficient light energy that they can be seen in the high resolution pictures of M51 across millions of lightyears distance.
For an not example of such a formation in our own galaxy, see M16, the Eagle Nebula.

Companion

Decades ago, it wasn't known for certain if the companion galaxy NGC 5195 was actually a true companion or rather some other galaxy passing at a distance. The advent of radio astronomy and subsequent radio images of M51 unequivocally demonstrated the reality of the interaction.
Recent simulations bear out that M51's spiral structure was caused by NGC 5195 passing through the main disk of M51 about 500 to 600 million years ago. In this model,[11] NGC 5195 comes from behind M51 through the disk towards the observer, made another disk crossing as recently as 50 to 100 Myrs ago until it is where we observe it to be now, slightly behind M51.

Wood Badge

Wood Badge is a Scouting leadership program and the related award for adult leaders in the programs of Scout associations around the world. Wood Badge courses aim to make Scouters better leaders by teaching advanced leadership skills, and by creating a bond and commitment to the Scout movement. Courses generally have a combined classroom and practical outdoors-based phase followed by a Wood Badge ticket, also known as the project phase. By "working the ticket", participants put their newly gained experience into practice to attain ticket goals aiding the Scouting movement. The first Wood Badge training was organized by Francis "Skipper" Gidney and lectured at by Robert Baden-Powell and others at Gilwell Park (United Kingdom) in September 1919. Wood Badge training has since spread across the world with international variations.
On completion of the course, participants are awarded the Wood Badge beads to recognize significant achievement in leadership and direct service to young people. The pair of small wooden beads, one on each end of a leather thong (string), is worn around the neck as part of the Scout uniform. The beads are presented together with a taupe neckerchief bearing a tartan patch of the Maclaren clan, honoring William De Bois Maclaren, who donated the funding to purchase Gilwell Park in 1919. The neckerchief with the braided leather woggle (neckerchief slide) denotes the membership of the 1st Gilwell Scout Group or Gilwell Troop 1. Recipients of the Wood Badge are known as Wood Badgers or Gilwellians.

Scout leader training course

History

Soon after founding the Scout movement, Robert Baden-Powell saw the need for leader training. Early Scoutmaster training camps were held in London in 1910, and in Yorkshire in 1911. Baden-Powell wanted his training to be as practical as possible, and that meant holding it in the outdoors in campsites. World War I delayed the development of leader training, so the first formal Wood Badge course was not offered until 1919.[1][2][3] Gilwell Park, just outside of London, was purchased specifically to provide a venue for the course and was opened for use on June 2, 1919. Francis Gidney, the first Camp Chief at Gilwell Park, conducted the first Wood Badge course there from September 8 to September 19, 1919. It was produced by Percy Everett, the Commissioner of Training, and Baden-Powell himself gave lectures. The course was attended by 18 participants, and other lecturers. After this first course, Wood Badge training continued at Gilwell Park, and it became the home of leadership training in the Scout movement.[4]

Modern curriculum

The main objectives of a Wood Badge course are to:[5][6][7]
Recognize the contemporary leadership concepts utilized in the corporate world and leading government organizations that are relevant to Scouting's values.
Apply the skills one learns from participating as a member of a successful working team.
View Scouting globally, as a family of interrelated, values-based programs that provide age-appropriate activities for youth.
Revitalize the leader's commitment by sharing in an inspirational experience that helps provide Scouting with the leadership it needs to accomplish its mission.
Generally, a Wood Badge course consists of classroom work, outdoor training, and the Wood Badge "ticket" or "project". Classroom and outdoor training are often combined and taught together, and occur over one or more weeks or weekends. As part of completing this portion of the course, participants must write their tickets.
The training includes both theoretical and experiential learning. All course participants are introduced to 1st Gilwell Scout group or Gilwell Scout Troop 1, and assigned to one of the traditional Wood Badge "critter" patrols. Instructors deliver training designed to strengthen the patrols. One-on-one work with an assigned troop guide helps each participant to reflect on what he has learned, so that he can better prepare an individualized "ticket". This part of the training program gives the adult Scouter the opportunity to assume the role of a Scout joining the original "model" troop, to learn firsthand how a troop ideally operates. The locale of all initial training is referred to as Gilwell Field, no matter its geographical location.[8]

Ticket

The phrase 'working your ticket' comes from a story attributed to Baden-Powell: Upon completion of a British soldier's service in India, he had to pay the cost of his ticket home. The most affordable way for a soldier to return was to engineer a progression of assignments that were successively closer to home.
Part of the transformative power of the Wood Badge experience is the effective use of metaphor and tradition to reach both heart and mind. In most Scout associations, "working your ticket" is the culmination of Wood Badge training. Participants apply themselves and their new knowledge and skills to the completion of items designed to strengthen the individual's leadership and the home unit's organizational resilience in a project or "ticket". The ticket consists of specific goals that must be accomplished within a specified time. Effective tickets require much planning and are approved by the Wood Badge course staff before the course phase ends. Upon completion of the ticket, a participant is said to have earned his way back to Gilwell.[9]

On completion

After completion of the Wood Badge course, participants are awarded the insignia in a Wood Badge bead ceremony.[10] They receive automatic membership in 1st Gilwell Park Scout Group (called Gilwell Troop 1 in America and other countries). These leaders are henceforth called Wood Badgers or Gilwellians. It is estimated that worldwide over 100,000 Scouters have completed their Wood Badge training.[11] The 1st Gilwell Scout Group meets annually during the first weekend in September at Gilwell Park for the Gilwell Reunion.[12]

France national rugby union team

The France national rugby union team is a national sporting side that represents France in rugby union. They compete annually against England, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales in the Six Nations Championship. They have won the championship outright fourteen times, shared it a further eight times, and have completed eight grand slams.
They are currently the fifth-ranked team in the world—behind New Zealand ("The All Blacks"), Australia, South Africa and Argentina.[2] Six former French players have been inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame.
Rugby was introduced to France in 1872 by the British, and on New Year's Day, 1906 the national side played its first Test match—against New Zealand in Paris. France played sporadically against the British Home Nations until they joined them to form a Five Nations tournament (now the Six Nations Championship) in 1910. France also competed in the rugby competitions at early Summer Olympics—winning the gold medal in 1900 and two silver medals in the 1920s. France came of age during the 1950s and 1960s, and won their first Five Nations title outright in 1959. They won their first Grand Slam in 1968. Since the inaugural World Cup in 1987, France have qualified for the knock-out stage of every tournament. They have reached the final twice: they were runners-up to the All Blacks in 1987 and to Australia in 1999. France are the host nation for the current 2007 Rugby World Cup.
France traditionally play in white-trimmed blue shirts with blue shorts and red socks, and are commonly referred to as les tricolores or les bleus. The French emblem is a red badge with a rooster. Their alternative strip is mainly white. French international matches are played at several venues across the country; the Stade de France in the Paris suburb of Saint-Denis is used for their games during the Six Nations.

History

Rugby was introduced to France in 1872 by British merchants and students.[3] Although France were represented at the 1900 Summer Olympics (where they won gold),[4] their first official test match did not take place till New Year's Day, 1906 against the New Zealand All Blacks in Paris.[5] France then played intermittently against the Home Nations until they joined them to form the Five Nations tournament in 1910. In 1913 France faced South Africa's Springboks for the first time; losing 38–5.[6] France also competed at the 1920 and 1924 Summer Olympics, and on both occasions lost to the United States in the gold medal match.[4]
France was ejected from the Five Nations in 1932 after being accused of professionalism in the French leagues at a time when rugby union was strictly amateur.[7][8] Forced to play against weaker opposition, France went on a winning streak; winning ten games in a row during the years from 1931 to 1936. This is still a record even today.[9] France were invited to rejoin the Five Nations in 1939 but did not compete until 1947 as international rugby was suspended during World War II.[8]
France came of age during the 1950s and 1960s: they won their first Five Nations championship and completed a successful tour of South Africa.[8] Their first championship was won in 1954 when they shared the title with England and Wales.[10][8] France won their first outright Five Nations championship in 1959; they won with three wins and a draw (against England).[10]
France became the first nation to tour South Africa winning the test series in 1958. The Springboks also visited Paris in 1961, the test was not completed due to onfield fighting amongst the players. France also toured New Zealand and Australia in 1961 losing both tests against the All Blacks but defeating Australia's Wallabies. They won their first Five Nations Grand Slam in 1968 by beating all four other competing teams, and won numerous titles in the following years.[10] In 1977 they won their second Grand Slam, fielding an unchanged side throughout the tournament.[10] They also defeated the All Blacks in Toulouse that year, but lost the return match in Paris.[11] On Bastille Day, 1979 they defeated the All Blacks in New Zealand for the first time, at Eden Park in Auckland.[12]
In 1981 the French clinched their third Grand Slam; at Twickenham against the England.[10] They again completed a Grand Slam in 1987 on the eve of the first Rugby World Cup hosted by Australia and New Zealand. In that tournament they came from behind numerous times to defeat the Wallabies in their semi-final, and faced the All Blacks in final at Eden Park, Auckland; France lost 29–9. They shared the Five Nations with Wales the next year, and also won it in 1989.[10] France hosted some of the tests during the 1991 World Cup, but made their exit from the after being knocked out by England at the Parc des Princes (Paris) in their quarter-final. One Five Nations championship was won in the early 1990s, in 1993. The following year France won a test series 2–0 in New Zealand.[13] They were knocked out of the 1995 World Cup semi-finals by eventual champions the Springboks, but did win their third place play-off match against England. France won back-to-back Grand Slams in 1997 and 1998. At the 1999 World Cup they defeated tournament favourites the All Blacks in the semi-finals, but lost to the Wallabies in the final.[10]
The Five Nations Championship was expanded in 2000 to include Italy. In the now Six Nations Championship France won a Grand Slam in 2002.[10] At the 2003 World Cup in Australia they qualified for the semi-finals where they were defeated by eventual champions England. In 2004 they won a second Six Nations Grand Slam which was followed by a Championship win in 2006 and successful defence in 2007.[10] In opener of the World Cup 2007 Argentina beat France 17-12 at the Stade de France stadium in Saint-Denis.

Strip

Until 1912, the strip (uniform) of the French team was white with two rings, one red and one blue.[14] After the first game won by France against Scotland in 1911, France's captain Marcel Communeau asked that the team adopt the coq (rooster) as its symbol.[15] The rooster was probably chosen partly because it is considered as a proud and combative animal that can be sometimes aggressive, although it had been used previously as a symbol by a French team—a former soccer player, Jean Rigal, wore a uniform with this emblem as early as May 1910.[16] The badge was initially white and red, but was altered to a multicoloured, embroidered image after 1945, and has been golden since 1970.[17]
The symbol used by the French rugby team was a great success, and was later adopted by the French delegation at the Olympic Games of 1920 where the rooster was perched on five Olympic rings.[18] The rooster has since become a well-known symbol of French teams. French players are sometimes called les coqs and some French supporters have been known to release roosters on the playing field before games.[19]
The French team traditionally played in blue shirts, whites shorts, and red socks, and as such they were nicknamed les tricolores. Due to the mostly blue Nike strip the French team currently wears, the team is now often referred to as les bleus (the blues). When this strip clashes with that of their opponents, such as in games against Scotland and Italy, French players wear white. New strips have been developed for the 2007 World Cup, one of which is a darker blue.

Battle of Flodden Field

The Battle of Flodden or Flodden Field was fought in the county of Northumberland, in northern England on September 9, 1513, between an invading Scots army under King James IV and an English army commanded by Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey. It ended in a bloody defeat for the Scots and was the largest battle (in terms of numbers) fought between the two nations.

Background

This conflict began when King James declared war on England, to honour the Auld Alliance and to divert Henry VIII's English troops from their campaign against the French king Louis XII. England was involved in a larger conflict; defending Italy and the Pope from the French, (see Italian Wars), as a member of the "Catholic League". Using the pretext of revenge for the murder of Robert Kerr, a warden of the Scottish East March, who had been killed by John "The bastard" Heron in 1508, James of Scotland invaded England with an army of about 30,000 men.
The battle actually took place near the village of Branxton, in the county of Northumberland, rather than at Flodden — hence the alternative name of Battle of Branxton. The Scots had previously been stationed at Flodden Edge, to the south of Branxton.

James Crosses the Border

With his muster complete King James crossed the border on August 22. Most of the soldiers who came with him were armed with the eighteen foot Continental pike, some six feet longer than the traditional Scottish schiltron spear. In the hands of the Swiss and German landsknechts these weapons had acquired a fearsome reputation; but they could only be used to effect in highly disciplined formations. James was accompanied by the French captain the comte d'Aussi with some forty of his fellow countrymen, who had helped to train the Scots in the use of the weapon. It is open to question, though, if the Scots infantrymen had been given enough time to master the new techniques of battle or, indeed, if the countryside into which they were advancing would allow them to make the best use of the training they had received.
Following in the wake of the army came master gunner Robert Borthwick with the artillery, seventeen guns in all, which required 400 oxen to drag them from Edinburgh. The majestic old bombard, Mons Meg, more trouble than she was worth, was left behind. Even so, the whole Scots artillery train was too heavy for a field campaign, and only slowed down the progress of the army. Although the big guns could batter down castle walls, they were difficult to manoeuvre in battle conditions. Moreover, these weapons had to be handled with skill to make them effective: unfortunately James had sent off his best gunners with the fleet.
James' army was composed in large part of raw recruits. Many had been demoralised by the high casualties sustained by the assault on Norham Castle, to which James laid siege soon after crossing the border. To make matters worse, the weather was deplorable, continuing wet and windy throughout the whole campaign. Disease began to spread and morale slumped still further. Gathering whatever spoils they could, many simply decided to make their way home. By early September men were arriving back in Edinburgh in such numbers that the town council was forced to issue a proclamation: "We charge straitli and command in our Soverane Lord the Kingis name that all manner of persons that ar cummyng fra his army that thai address thame and returne againe thairto."

Surrey's March and invitation to James

By early September the Earl of Surrey's muster was complete, and the old general had approximately 26,000 men under his command, made up chiefly of archers and other infantrymen armed with the bill, the English version of the Continental halberd, an eight-foot-long weapon with a fearsome axe-like head, which could be used for cutting and slashing. All were on foot, save for William, Lord Dacre, who had some 1,500 light border horsemen. Surrey was anxious that James would not be allowed to slip away, as he had during his invasion of 1497. To ensure that the Scots king remained, the commander sent a herald from his base near Alnwick, with an invitation to meet in battle on September 9. James responded with his own message, announcing his intention to wait for the Howards until noon on that day.
James's reasons for accepting the challenge are unclear, when most Scottish commanders since Robert Bruce had avoided large set-piece battles with the English unless the circumstances were exceptional. The traditional explanation is that he was blinded by outmoded notions of chivalry and honour, although two other factors may have influenced him.
First, it seems clear that James was confident in the sheer size of his army, which was at least as strong, if not stronger, than that of his enemy. He was proud of his guns and his pikemen, and eager to let them prove themselves in battle. There was always the danger of the English longbow; but many of James' troops were encased in the latest armour or carried heavy wooden shields to counter the effects of the arrow fusilades.
Secondly, he had selected a very strong position in which to meet a frontal attack by Surrey. Just across the River Till from Ford Castle lie the north-eastern outriders of the Cheviots. The highest of these is Flodden Hill, in those days a treeless slope, rising to over 500 feet above sea level. From Flodden, the ground falls away to the north-west, before it rises again to Branxton Hill. To the west the approach is covered by Moneylaws Hill. The whole position resembles a huge irregular horseshoe shape, with the open end facing eastwards towards the Till. It was here, in a great natural fortress, that James placed his army. Bannockburn had shown the importance of selecting a good position in battle; but the Flodden position was, if anything, too strong: any attempt at direct assault would have been military suicide. James was no Bruce, and Surrey was no Hotspur.

Flodden Edge

On September 6 the English army entered the valley of the Till. From here they had a clear view of the Scots a few miles to the west. To Surrey the strength of the enemy position was immediately obvious. The Trewe Encountre, an account written soon after the battle, describes what he saw;
The Kyng of Scottes did lye with his army in the egge of Cheviotte and was enclosed in thre parties, with three great mountaynes soe that ther was noe passage nor entre unto hym but oon waye where was laied marvelous and great ordenance of gonnes.
For a second time, Surrey sent his herald, complaining that James had taken a position "more like a fortress", and inviting him to do battle on the level plain at nearby Milfield. Naturally enough, James refused. By now it was certain that James wanted a battle. Even so, it was to be a battle on his terms: Surrey must come to him; he would not go to Surrey. Ironically, from what is known of the coming battle, James might have fared better if he had indeed accepted Surrey's invitation, and allowed his pikemen the advantage of a 'level plain'.
Surrey was faced with a stark choice. Running short of supplies, he would either have to abandon the field or take the risky step of outflanking the Scots by marching to the north and west, and taking a position across James' lines of communication. This would have the effect of forcing him out of his present position in a rapid march back towards the border. The fact that James did not abandon Flodden, or was only able to do so when it was far too late, was to give England one of the most complete victories over Scotland in her history.
Surrey began his march on the evening of September 8. During the following morning, his army crossed the Till in two places. The leading part of the army (the divisions of Edmund Howard and Thomas Howard, the Lord Admiral, with most of the artillery) crossed at Twizel Bridge; the remainder (Surrey's, Dacre's and Stanley's troops) at Milford Ford nearby. They then marched south towards Branxton Hill.

Olm

The Olm or Proteus (Proteus anguinus) is an amphibian that lives in the subterranean waters of the Dinaric karst from the Soča river basin near Trieste in Italy through southern Slovenia and southwestern Croatia to Herzegovina. It is the only species in the genus Proteus, the only European species of the family Proteidae, and the only European cave-dwelling caudate.it is a relative to the axolotl (mexican walking fish)it unlike the axolotl has internal gills with only a small amount of gill showing. It is also called the "human fish" or "humanfish", because of its human-like skin (translated literally from Slovenian: Človeška ribica and Croatian: Čovječja ribica), Cave Salamander, or White Salamander.[2]
This animal is most notable for its adaptations to life in the complete darkness of its underground habitat. The Olm's eyes have atrophied, leaving it blind, while its other senses, particularly those of smell and hearing, are acute. It also has no skin pigmentation. In contrast to other amphibians, the Olm is wholly aquatic, not only breeding underwater but living its entire life there.[3] This is possible due to their retention of larval characteristics, such as external gills, into adulthood.

Anatomy

External appearance

The Olm's body is snakelike, 20–30 cm (8–12 in) long, with some specimens reaching up to 40 cm (16 in).[4] The trunk is cylindrical, uniformly thick, and segmented with regularly spaced furrows at the myomere borders. The tail is relatively short, laterally flattened, and surrounded by a thin fin. The limbs are small and thin, with a reduced number of digits compared to other amphibians; the front legs have three digits instead of the normal four, and the rear have two digits instead of five. Its body is covered by a thin layer of skin, which contains very little of the pigment riboflavin,[5] making it yellowish-white or pink in color.[3] The internal organs can be seen shining through on the abdominal part of the body. The resemblance in color to human skin is the reason why the Proteus is called "human fish" in some languages. However, the Olm's skin retains the ability to produce melanin. When exposed to light, it will gradually turn dark, and in some cases the larvae are also colored. Its pear-shaped head ends with short, dorsoventrally flattened snout. The mouth opening is small, with tiny teeth forming a sieve to keep larger particles inside the mouth. The nostrils are so small as to be imperceptible, but are placed somewhat laterally near the end of the snout. The regressed eyes are covered by a layer of skin. The Olm breathes with external gills that form two branched tufts at the back of the head.[3] They are red in color because the oxygen-rich blood shows through the unpigmented skin. The Olm also has rudimentary lungs, but their role in respiration is only accessory. The sexes are very similar in appearance, with males having a somewhat thicker cloaca than females.

Sensory organs

Cave-dwelling animals have been prompted, among other adaptations, to develop and improve non-visual sensory systems in order to orient in and adapt to permanently dark habitats.[6] The Olm's sensory system is also adapted to life in the subterranean aquatic environment. Unable to use vision for orientation, the Olm compensates with other senses, which are better developed than in amphibians living on the surface. It retains larval proportions, like a long, slender body and a large, flattened head, and is thus able to carry a larger number of sensory receptors.

Photoreceptors

The eyes are regressed, but retain sensitivity to light. They lie deep below the dermis of the skin, and are rarely visible except in some younger adults. Larvae have normal eyes, but development soon stops and they start regressing, finally atrophying after four months of development.[7] The pineal body has also regressed photoreceptive cells, retaining visual pigment like photoreceptive cells of the regressed eye. The Pineal organ in Proteus probably possesses some control over the physiological processes.[8] Behavioral experiments revealed that the skin itself is also sensitive to light.[9] Photosensitivity of the integument is due to the pigment melanopsin inside specialized cells called melanophores. Preliminary immunocytochemical analysis support the existence of photosensitive pigment also in Proteus' integument[10][11]

Chemoreceptors

The Olm is capable of sensing very low concentrations of organic compounds in the water. They are better at sensing both the quantity and quality of prey by smell than related amphibians.[12] The nasal epithelium, located on the inner surface of the nasal cavity and in the Jacobson's organ, is thicker than in other amphibians.[13] The taste buds are in the mucous epithelium of the mouth, most of them on the upper side of the tongue and on the entrance to the gill cavities. Those in the oral cavity are used for tasting food, where those near the gills probably sense the chemical composition of water.

Mechano- and electroreceptors

The sensory epithelia of the inner ear are very specific differentiated and enables the Olm to receive sound waves in the water, as well as vibrations from the ground. The complex functional-morphological orientation of the sensory cells enables the animal to register the sound sources[14][15] Little is known about the hearing of Proteus, but occasionally observed reactions to sounds have indicated its possibility (Bulog, personal observ.). This suggested a hearing capability even and especially under water. As this animal stays neotenic throughout its long life span, it is only occasionally exposed to normal adult hearing in air which is probably also possible for Proteus as in most salamanders. Hence, it would be of adaptive value in caves, with no vision available, to profit from underwater hearing by recognizing particular sounds and eventual localization of prey or other sound sources, i.e. acoustical orientation in general. The ethological experiments indicate that the best hearing sensitivity of Proteus is between 10 Hz and up to 15.000 Hz.[16] The lateral line supplements inner ear sensitivity by registering low-frequency near by water displacements.
A new type of sensory organ has been analyzed on the head of Proteus, utilizing light and electron microscopy. These new organs have been described as ampullary organs.[17] Like some other lower vertebrates, the Olm has the ability to register weak electric fields.[18] Some behavioral experiments suggest that the Olm may be able to use Earth's magnetic field to orient itself. Recently, Proteus anguinus has been found to align itself with natural and artificially modified magnetic fields.[19]

Hurricane Felix (2007)

Hurricane Felix is the sixth named storm, second hurricane, and second Category 5 hurricane of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season. Forming from a tropical wave on August 31, it passed through the southern Windward Islands on September 1 before strengthening to attain hurricane status. A day later on September 2, Felix rapidly strengthened into a major hurricane, and early on September 3 it was upgraded to Category 5 status; by 2100 UTC on September 3 the hurricane was downgraded to Category 4 status, but was re-upgraded by 1040 UTC to a Category 5 hurricane. Felix is currently making landfall just south of the border between Nicaragua and Honduras.

Storm history

A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 24, tracking westward at around 14 mph (23 km/h) with no associated deep convection and a weak low-level inverted-V curvature.[1] Initially difficult to locate on satellites,[2] the wave axis tracked through a moist environment[3] and developed an area of scattered thunderstorms. By August 25 visible satellite imagery indicated broad cyclonic turning just north of the Intertropical Convergence Zone.[4] The wave continued to develop moderate to strong convection, and on August 27 a 1012 mbar low pressure area developed about 830 miles (1,340 km) west-southwest of Praia, Cape Verde.[5] For the next several days the system failed to organize significantly;[6] however, on August 30 the wave became better defined with more representation of the cyclonic turning into the low.[7] Convection increased early the next day,[8] and a Hurricane Hunters flight into the system reported the presence of a closed low-level circulation; accordingly, the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Six at 2100 UTC on August 31 while it was located about 180 miles (295 km) east-southeast of the southern Windward Islands.[9]
Upon becoming a tropical cyclone, the depression was located to the south of a strong ridge, resulting in a west-northwest motion. The system maintained curved rainbands with expanding outflow, and with light wind shear and warm water temperatures the environment favored further development.[9] Its deep convection consolidated very near the center, and shortly after passing over the island of Grenada the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Felix early at around 0900 UTC on September 1.[10] Felix quickly strengthened as it developed a small inner core of convection with tightly-wound bands around the center,[11] and by late on September 1 an eye feature was observed on satellite imagery.[12] Based on reports from reconnaissance aircraft, the National Hurricane Center estimated that Felix attained hurricane status by early on September 2 while located about 155 miles (250 km) east-northeast of Bonaire.[13]
Tracking through an area of extremely low wind shear and increasingly high oceanic heat content, Hurricane Felix quickly developed a well-defined eye, a symmetric cloud structure, and strong upper-level outflow.[14] Felix was upgraded to major hurricane status at around 1800 UTC on September 2 while located about 490 miles (790 km) southeast of Kingston, Jamaica.[15] Rapid strengthening continued, and later that day the hurricane attained Category 4 status on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale with the pressure dropping to 957 mbar; this corresponded to a falling rate of 3.4 mbar per hour, which the National Hurricane Center remarked as "one of the more rapid deepening rates we have observed." A Hurricane Hunters flight reported a stadium effect in the eye, and also reported the eye diameter shrank to 14 miles (22 km).[16] A subsequent Hurricane Hunters flight experienced flight level winds of 175 mph (280 km/h), with peak surface winds of 163 mph (263 km/h) reported in the southwest quadrant of the eyewall; surface winds of up to 189 mph (306 km/h) were found in its northeastern quadrant, although the National Hurricane Center reported the peak reading could have been contaminated due to graupel in the clouds. Based on the observations, it is estimated Felix attained winds of 165 mph (265 km/h) by 0000 UTC on September 3 while located about 390 miles (625 km) southeast of Kingston, Jamaica, making Felix a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale. While investigating the hurricane, Hurricane Hunters encountered extreme turbulence and potentially dangerous graupel, which forced the flight to abort the mission.[17]
Continuing quickly westward, the eye of Felix diameter decreased to 12 miles (19 km), and the National Hurricane Center estimates the hurricane attained a minimum central pressure of 929 mbar about nine hours after it reached Category 5 status.[18] Subsequently, cloud tops near the center began to warm as the eye became less distinct,[19] and by 1800 UTC on September 3 Felix weakened to Category 4 status with winds of 145 mph (235 km/h).[20] On September 4, Felix had completed an eyewall replacement cycle and began strengthening again during the day.[21] Felix was upgraded to a Category 5 for the second time at 1040 UTC,[22] and made landfall in extreme north-eastern Nicaragua shortly after.[23]

Houston, Texas

Houston (pronounced /'hjuːstən/) is the largest city in the state of Texas and has the fourth-largest population in the United States. As of July 1, 2006, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates the Houston population at 2,144,491, covering more than 600 square miles (1,600 km²). Houston is the county seat of Harris County and part of the Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown metropolitan area, the sixth-largest metropolitan area in the U.S., with a population of more than 5.5 million.[3]
Houston was founded on August 30, [1836]] by brothers Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen on land near the banks of Buffalo Bayou. The city was incorporated on June 5, 1837 and named after the current President of the Republic of Texas, former General Sam Houston, who had commanded at the Battle of San Jacinto which took place 25 miles (40 km) east of where the city was established. The burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in Houston's population. In the 20th century, Houston became the home of the Texas Medical Center, the world's largest concentration of healthcare and research institutions, and NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center.
Houston's economy has a broad industrial base in the energy, aeronautics, and technology industries; only New York City is home to more Fortune 500 headquarters. The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled and second in total cargo tonnage handled.[4] Houston is also home to Rice University, one of the United States' leading teaching and research universities, and the University of Houston, Texas's third-largest public research university, with more than 36,000 students from 130 countries.
Houston is a multicultural city, with a large and growing international community. The Museum District is home to many cultural institutions and exhibits, attracting more than 7 million visitors a year. Houston has an active visual and performing arts scene and is one of five U.S. cities that offer year-round resident companies in all major performing arts.[5]

History
In August 1836, John Kirby Allen and Augustus Chapman Allen, two real estate entrepreneurs from New York City, purchased 6,642 acres (27 km²) of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city.[6] The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston, the popular general of the Texans at the Battle of San Jacinto.[6] Houston was granted incorporation on June 5, 1837, with James S. Holman becoming its first mayor.[7] In the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County (now Harris County) and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas.[8] In 1840, the community established a Chamber of Commerce in part to promote shipping and waterborne business at the newly created port on Buffalo Bayou.[9]
By 1860, Houston had emerged as a commercial and railroad hub for the export of cotton.[8] Railroad spurs from the Texas inland converged in Houston, where they met rail lines to the ports of Galveston and Beaumont. During the Civil War, Houston served as a headquarters for General John Bankhead Magruder, who used Houston as an organization point for the Battle of Galveston.[10] After the Civil War, Houston businessmen initiated efforts to widen the city's extensive system of bayous so the city could accept more commerce between downtown and the nearby port of Galveston. In 1900, after Galveston was struck by a devastating hurricane, efforts to make Houston into a viable deepwater port were accelerated.
The following year, oil discovered at Spindletop, an oil field near Beaumont, prompted the development of the U.S. petroleum industry.[11] In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt approved a $1 million improvement project for the Houston Ship Channel. President Woodrow Wilson opened the Port of Houston in 1914, 7 years after digging began. By 1930, Houston had become Texas' most populous city.[12]
When World War II started, tonnage levels at the port decreased and shipping activities were suspended; however, the war did provide economic benefits for the city. Petrochemical refineries and manufacturing plants were constructed along the ship channel because of the demand for petroleum and synthetic rubber products during the war.[13] Ellington Field, initially built during World War I, was revitalized as an advanced training center for bombardiers and navigators.[14] The M. D. Anderson Foundation formed the Texas Medical Center in 1945. After the war, Houston's economy reverted to being primarily port-driven. In 1948, several unincorporated areas were annexed into the city limits, which more than doubled the city's size, and Houston proper began to spread across the region.[7][15]
In 1950, the availability of air-conditioning provided impetus for many companies to relocate to Houston, including Continental Oil, Prudential Insurance, Mobil Oil, Gulf Oil, Texaco Oil, Tidewater Associated and Sunray MidContinent, resulting in an economic boom and producing a key shift in the city's economy toward the energy sector.[16][17] The increased production of the local shipbuilding industry during World War II spurred Houston's growth,[18] as did the establishment in 1961 of NASA's "Manned Spacecraft Center" (renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1973), which created the city's aerospace industry. The Astrodome, nicknamed the "Eighth Wonder of the World,"[19] opened in 1965 as the world's first indoor domed sports stadium.
During the late 1970s, Houston experienced a population boom as people from Rust Belt states moved to Texas in large numbers.[20] The new residents came for the numerous employment opportunities in the petroleum industry, created as a result of the Arab Oil Embargo. The population boom ended abruptly in the mid-1980s, as oil prices fell precipitously. The space industry also suffered in 1986 after the Space Shuttle Challenger exploded shortly after launch. The late 1980s saw a recession affect the city's economy. Since the 1990s, as a result of the recession, Houston has made efforts to diversify its economy by focusing on aerospace and biotechnology and by reducing its dependence on the petroleum industry. In 1997, Houstonians elected Lee P. Brown as the city's first African American mayor.[21] In June 2001, Tropical Storm Allison dumped up to 37 inches of rain on parts of Houston, causing the worst flooding in the city's history; the storm cost billions of dollars in damage and killed 20 people in Texas.[22] Many neighborhoods and communities have changed since the storm. By December of that same year, Houston-based energy company Enron collapsed into the second-largest ever U.S. bankruptcy during an investigation surrounding fabricated partnerships that were allegedly used to hide debt and inflate profits. In August 2005, Houston became a shelter to more than 150,000 people from New Orleans who evacuated from Hurricane Katrina.[23] One month later, approximately 2.5 million Houston area residents evacuated when Hurricane Rita approached the Gulf Coast, leaving little damage to the Houston area. This event marked the largest urban evacuation in the history of the United States.[24][25]

Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 601.7 square miles (1,558.4 km²); this comprises 579.4 square miles (1,500.7 km²) of land and 22.3 square miles (57.7 km²) of water.
Most of Houston is located on the gulf coastal plain, and its vegetation is classified as temperate grassland and forest. Much of the city was built on forested land, marshes, swamp, or prairie, which are all still visible in surrounding areas. Flatness of the local terrain, when combined with urban sprawl, has made flooding a recurring problem for the city.[26] Downtown stands about 50 feet (15 m) above sea level,[27] and the highest point in far northwest Houston is about 125 feet (38 m) in elevation.[28][29] The city once relied on groundwater for its needs, but land subsidence forced the city to turn to ground-level water sources such as Lake Houston and Lake Conroe.[30][7]
Houston has four major bayous passing through the city. Buffalo Bayou runs through downtown and the Houston Ship Channel, and has three tributaries: White Oak Bayou, which runs through the Heights neighborhood and towards downtown; Braes Bayou, which runs along the Texas Medical Center; and Sims Bayou, which runs through the south of Houston and downtown Houston The ship channel continues past Galveston and then into the Gulf of Mexico.

Geology
Underpinning Houston's land surface are unconsolidated clays, clay shales, and poorly-cemented sands up to several miles deep. The region's geology developed from river deposits formed from the erosion of the Rocky Mountains. These sediments consist of a series of sands and clays deposited on decaying organic matter that, over time, transformed into oil and natural gas. Beneath the layers of sediment is a water-deposited layer of halite, a rock salt. The porous layers were compressed over time and forced upward. As it pushed upward, the salt dragged surrounding sediments into salt dome formations, often trapping oil and gas that seeped from the surrounding porous sands. The thick, rich, sometimes black, surface soil is suitable for rice farming in suburban outskirts where the city continues to grow.[31][32]
Despite over 150 active surface faults (estimated to be 300 active faults)[33] with an aggregate length of up to 310 miles (500 km)[34][35] within the city of Houston alone, the region is generally earthquake-free. Land in some communities southeast of Houston is sinking because water has been pumped out from the ground for many years and may be associated with slip along faults. However, the slippage is slow and not considered an earthquake where stationary faults must slip suddenly enough to create seismic waves.[36] These faults also tend to move at a smooth rate in what is termed "fault creep,"[30] which further reduces the risk of an earthquake.